## NUMERICAL-ANALYSIS Course

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What if we've got an ODE with an order $n\in\mathbb N, n \geq 2$, like this?

$\left\lbrace \begin{array}{l} y^{(n)} = f(t, y(t), y\prime (t), \dots, y^{(n-1)} (t)) \\ y(a) = y_0 \\ y\prime (a) = y_1 \\ \vdots \\ y^{(n-1)} (a) = y_{n-1} \end{array} \right .$

We set

$Y = \left ( \begin{array}{c} y^{(n - 1)} \\ y^{(n - 2)} \\ \vdots \\ y\prime \\ y \end{array} \right )$

so we have

$Y' = \left ( \begin{array}{c} y^{(n)} \\ y^{(n - 1)} \\ \vdots \\ y\prime\prime \\ y\prime \end{array} \right ) = \left ( \begin{array}{c} f(t, Y) \\ y^{(n - 1)} \\ \vdots \\ y\prime\prime \\ y\prime \end{array} \right ) \quad and \quad Y_0 = \left ( \begin{array}{c} y_{n-1} \\ y_{n-2} \\ \vdots \\ y_1 \\ y_0 \end{array} \right )$

Thus, we could use the methods we learned earlier, using matrices.

For example, the forward Euler method become :

$\left \lbrace \begin{array}{l} Z_0 = Y_0 \\ Z_{k+1} = Z_k + ( t_{k+1} - t_k ) \times f_c (t_k, Z_k) \end{array} \right .$

with

$f_c : \left \lbrace \begin{array}{ccc} \mathbb R \times \mathbb K^n &\rightarrow & \mathbb K^n \\ (t, X) = (t, (x_n, x_{n-1}, \dots, x_1) ) & \mapsto & (f(t, X), x_n, \dots, x_2) \end{array} \right .$

The approximation of the ODE are the values given by the last line of the $Z_k$.

## Example ¶

$\left \lbrace \begin{array}{l} y\prime\prime + y = 0 \\ y(0) = 1 \\ y\prime (0) = 1 \\ \end{array} \right .$

on $[0, 4\pi]$.

We could find that $y\prime\prime = f( t, (y\prime, y) ) = - y$ .

a <- 0
b <- 4 * 3.1415
N <- 1000
h <- (b-a) / (N-1)
t <- seq(a, b, h)

#How we pose the problem.
f <- function (t, y) { return (- y[2]) }
fc <- function (t, y) { return ( c(f(t,y), y[1]) ) }
y0 <- c(1, 1)
#Initialize the sequence.
#I choose de represent each z_k by a column.
z <- matrix(nrow=2, ncol=N)
z[,1] <- y0

#Calculate recursively the sequence.
for (k in 2:N)
{
z[,k] <- z[,(k-1)] + h * fc( t[k-1], z[,(k-1)] )
}

plot(t, z[2,])
#plot(t, cos(t) + sin(t))


Note : The solution of the example is $\cos + \sin$.